Zombie, noun. The living dead – a dead creature reanimated via a supernatural force and known for their propensity to eat human brains! Photo courtesy of Blogspot

I don’t want to talk about the creatures of fiction but the real zombie birds that haunt a few aviaries around the Philippines.  These zombies are the remnant trophy pieces that will never breed because of a lack of mates, suitable conditions or the expertise of the owner and without breeding a collection may as well be dead when there is no source of new stock.  Time has run out for many species of finches as stock has not been imported since 2005/6 and they have not been bred.  There are plenty of Zebras, Societies, Shaft-Tails, Gouldians, Stars, Owls and Java Sparrows but it is rare to find Masked finches, Diamond Fire-tails and Cut-throats offered.  In 2004 before I kept birds you could buy just about anything but unfortunately almost no one could breed them. 

By June 2007 when I got my aviary the most exotic finch available were cut-throats.  I sold two pair today (March 24) and got wholesale at Cartimar what I paid for their parents two years ago – P2000/pr.  It’s anyone’s guess what price they will be offered at to the public – if they get that far.  My colony represents almost the last of their kind and I’m happy to share my stock and expertise with those that can handle them but what of the other species out there?  I know that some finch enthusiasts still harbor Masked finches, St Helenas, African Silverbills and Cordon bleus as I’ve seen them on Blogs and at bird shows.  There may be more and I hope there are.

What I’d like to see is their owners examine their stewardship of these species remnants and decide to get together and breed them before it’s too late.  Can someone tell me if this is actually already happening?  As a non-Tagalog speaker I’m rather disadvantaged when it comes to gathering local intelligence about my favorite hobby.  If owners of these rare breeds could list their holdings and negotiate with others to find mates, expertise or even infrastructure these species might be saved and Philippine finch aviculture as a whole would benefit from the reinvigoration of the market. 

I’ve recently been told that Cordon Bleus are still bred in low numbers but they only breed once a year and have become rare as attrition exceed replacement and the number of males produced is disproportionate.  If you are one of those people I’ll pass on what I know about them.  In Australia this species hasn’t come into the country since 1945 but stocks are considered secure because it does breed freely and often all year round.  I think the big difference is that few people here have aviaries (an aviary in Australia is a cage that a person can comfortably enter and walk around in) and the provision of live food (typically termites or meal worms) and green seed during the breeding season is essential.  Like most estrillidads ripening green seed, softened or sprouted seed and soft foods are provided while young are in the nest.  Cage breeding, like overcrowding, is known to cause the female to only mature ova that will become male as this is the optimal finch strategy when resources are apparently limited to a small cage, having fewer and male progeny will lessen over-crowding and increase species fitness by increasing completion between the males.

I’d be happy to hear for zombie owners that want to get a living collection going and to see if their birds can be matched up before it’s too late.  Maybe you don’t have the space or the interested anymore but I’m sure someone does and these rare species can be saved but it will take cooperation.  I hope this can be done.  Your comments and cooperation will be apprececiated by all finch lovers here in the Philippines.

Lip-stick marked Java

The Java Sparrow or Maya Costa in the Philippines (Padda oryzivora) is the largest of the Estrilidid finches and while not brilliantly colored it is a strikingly elegant bird. Javas are closely allied with the munias (Lonchura spp) and in keeping with that group are sexually monomorphic. These birds are widely kept in Java and overseas – including the Philippines where feral populations have long been established. There are also feral population established on Christmas Island (An Australian territory near Java), Hawaii and in Fiji according to Javas UK .

Timor Sparrow From http://www.sjdjavas.co.uk/news07.htm

There are actually two species within Padda, the other being the lesser known Timor Sparrow ( P. fuscata ) and the two species should never be housed together because of the risk of hybridization. Sadly, while the Java sparrow is relatively common in the Philippines (wild sourced feral birds sell for ~PhP800 a pair at Cartimar) its number have fallen perilously in Indonesia due to hunting for the bird-trade and is now listed as vulnerable under CITES. If you want to read more on in situ Java Sparrow conservation you may enjoy reading about the Prambanan Temple Project.

Java Sparrows In the Philippines
The withdrawal of the markets in the US and EU for wild sourced birds has thankfully saved the wild Java Sparrow here in the Philippines however as recently as 1990 significant numbers of wild birds were being exported – records show some 9000 wild Javas were legally exported (NSCB report). Even now, putatively captive bred birds are still being exported primarily to the middle east according to contacts in the trade at Cartimar. Remembering that the Philippines exported the local Strawberry finch into extinction, aviculturist here shouldn’t be complacent about exports they should breed Javas rather than rely on constantly dipping into the local population and remaining as “keepers” rather than breeders given the Indonesian experience.
 

Breeding

With all the gloom and doom out of the way the good news is that once established in captivity Java Sparrows are considered free breeders and aren’t difficult manage. That said please remember that most of the wild-type birds for sale here in the Philippines are exactly that wild birds and so aren’t easy to breed. If you want something easier go for the mutations (pieds, whites and creams are the most common) or carefully source your birds to ensure they are truly captive bred. Being interested in only normal birds myself, I found out too late about the origin of my birds – none the less I have managed to breed them this year.
As previously stated Javas are sexually monomorphic, a character they share with the other munas. This makes them difficult sex prior to breeding so unless you are very experienced – which I’m not – birds must be left to choose their own mates. In a large flight this is quite easy but if you have breeding cages or cabinets that will only accommodate two birds then serial introductions are the only the only sure option. Experienced breeders can often pick birds by slight differenced in feathering, beak shape and behavior but the methods aren’t fool proof. If you want to read about these please visit the SN Aviaries site  or the Java finch site. It is generally true that cock birds sing but conversely not all non-singers are hens. In my experience even giving individuals distinguishing colored rings and attempting to observe which birds were pairing off in a flight was difficult because my birds panic easily whenever I go near the aviary. To identify which birds were actually occupying nests I used a trick I saw on the internet – I put lipstick around the nest entrance and the birds occupying the nest marked themselves. Once nesting the sex of the birds can be determined as with any Estrilidid finch in that only the hen incubates at night and duties are shared during the day.
Javas don’t usually build a free standing nest but occupy hollows in trees and crevices in buildings. In captivity they will accept a budgie-type box or a large cane basket nest but my birds did nothing until give a ½ open style wooden finch box. I formed the initial nest using dried panicum and tiger-grass heads and let them to finish the nest with more of he same grasses. No soft lining materials were used by my birds despite the fact that feathers were offered. The clutch size for my birds is 4, with incubation taking 14 days and a further 30 days to fledge after hatching. Javas are not generaly worried by nest inspections but I don’t go in daily either.
Although I give my birds a daily ration of green panicum and Echinochloa (& sometimes rice), mashed egg and sprouted grain, Javas can probably raise their young on dry seed and leafy greens alone. Javas don’t usually take live food according to the Java finch site. My birds don’t seem to be affected by the presence of youngsters from the previous brood in the aviary however in cages & cabinets young should be removed as soon as they are independent.

Fledgling Java Sparrow

Young Javas , such as the fledgling shown in the accompaning photo acquire adult plumage at around 3 months but shouldn’t be bred from until they are one year old.
 

Care
The Jarva’s beak is large and powerful so giving them small grains like panicum and canary seeds is wasteful as they won’t ordinarily eat them so unless your birds are part of mixed finch collection including small grains is wasteful. I like to include oats in the mix rather than rice as dried paddy rice (palay) is it just a little too hard but ½ ripe (green) seeds are eagerly taken. My mix is US white millet, red millet, Japanese millet, rape and oats (2:1:1:0.1:0.1). A grit mix and cuttlebone is always on hand.  Clean water for bathing is essential for their well being. It seems they will drink soiled and contaminated water but for bathing it must be clean. As is common for many birds kept in small cages, rather than in aviaries, their toenails quickly become too long and will need regular trimming.

 Mutants and Color Forms
As previously stated I’m not into mutants and since a picture says a thousand words I recommend that readers should have a look at the photos on the Singing wings and the Java Links of SN Aviaries.  Pied birds result in crossing a normal type to a white but this risks contaminating your germ-line forever. In Australia there are probably no pure wild-type Javas left because of the constant crossing that goes on when mixed collections are not carefully managed. Given that wild-type birds are still available here, Philippine aviculturists should ensure that this doesn’t happen to the Java sparrow – as it is happening now to Zebras and Gouldians in the Philippines.

Another success was had with my cut-throats – the first in 6 month.  At least one pair has now gotten the toad toxin out of their system as they fledged 2 young while I was away and now have 2 more nestlings.  The pair I kept with Javas while they didn’t breed they laid and laid and laid. In all this nest had 26 eggs – far too many to incubate and all but 2 or 3 appeared to be sterile but obviously there’s nothing wrong with the hen but laying this many eggs is a serve drain on the body so I’ll have to rest her for a month or so and perhaps swap with the male of my 3rd pair which laid no eggs.

In my main (toad-affected) aviary there were plenty of nests but no successes.  My Diamond firetail cock is a prolific nest builder. I’ve only had them since September but they have seven nests – all unsuccessful (2 eggs/clutch of which only  has managed to hatch and was tossed dead from the nest soon afterwards).  I suspect my star finches are on eggs but they are readily dessert so I won’t investigate.  I’m amazed that the Zebras haven’t tried to nest since June 2009 but that’s not a tragedy given but it’s the same story for the Gouldians and owls so I’m disappointed but hopeful given what’s happening in the other aviaries.

 From New Scientist - Birds prefer not to play out of their league. Some female zebra finches have been found to choose low-quality males rather than their superior competitors. It’s the first time anything like this has been observed in nature.

Marie-Jeanne Holveck and Katharina Riebel of Leiden University, the Netherlands, separated zebra finch chicks into either small groups of two to three chicks or larger groups of five to six chicks. The idea is that birds that grow up in big broods have fewer resources devoted to them and will be of a lower quality: weaker, weedier and poorer singers.

Once the chicks had grown up, both low and high-quality females were placed in a cage where they could choose to listen to either a low or high-quality male song by pecking one of two red buttons. Of the 24 birds observed, every low-quality female chose the low-quality male song, and the high-quality females opted for males with high-quality songs.

Holveck and Riebel then tested how birds of the same and different quality mated. When in a cage together, birds of the same quality were much quicker to mate than mismatched birds.

Great mate

When a low-quality female did mate with a high-quality partner, her eggs were larger. The authors reckon this is because the female knows she is doing better than she deserves, and will invest more nutrients into the eggs she lays.

Zebra finches mate seasonally, so might they not have time to wait around for Mr Perfect. Mating out of their league could result in “divorce” if the male leaves for a higher-quality female.

The authors say their finding echoes a popular perception that humans choose partners who they think are as attractive as themselves, or have the same “market value”. If perceived market value can affect mate choice in such diverse species, it could be a general phenomenon, says Holveck.

“The results are striking,” says Tim Fawcett of the University of Groningen, the Netherlands. “I expect this behaviour will also be found in other animals.”

Introduction & Scope
The routine capture and domestication of wild birds is a taboo subject that most modern aviculturists agree should stop but that will only happen when domesticated strains are secure. In my homeland, Australia, laws governing the capture and sale of wild-life have prohibited this practice (at least for Australian native birds) since the mid 1980s and as a consequence very few will even talk about the subject for fear of attracting the scrutiny of the authorities. Here in the Philippines there are similar laws but the level of compliance and enforcement is much lower. Fortunately for wildlife, enactment of RA9147 is changing that but the penalty for aviculturist is that the supply of wild-sourced birds (domestic & imported) is drying up. This has both positive and negative consequences for wild-life and aviculture. I’m not going to get into the morality or otherwise of keeping animals as there are plenty other sites that address that, my concern is for aviculturists and their interests. I will also restrict my examination to the domestication of finches as I doubt, at least in the short-term, that Philippine avicultuists have the knowledge or critical mass to maintain captive populations of birds other than the more conventional subjects – finches, poultry (quail, pheasants, chickens & water fowl) parrots and pigeons. Even with the resources and organization available in developed countries some species will always be extremely difficult to maintain and so will remain outside of legitimate aviculture.
My own knowledge of domestication is, like most like that of Australians, out of date. As a child I had access to many wild caught Kimberly finches (and some local ones too!) but I only ever bred from wild-sourced star, zebra and owl finches but I never went out of my way to do this and it wasn’t an interest of my family.
In this post I want to examine what makes a bird suitable for aviculture and how initial stock can best be brought into captivity. To do this outside of the law is of course not an option I’m advocating and of course in situ conservation must be a priority and any capture should not endanger the birds in the wild. Up until the end of the 1990s the Philippines hosted a feral population of the strawberry finch but it was trapped and even exported to extinction because aviculturists and traders exploited the population without any real effort to domesticate these birds – this should not be allowed to happen again. Many people still hold birds registered with DENR from the 2004 registration period and it is imperative that considerable effort be placed into domesticating these birds before they too die off and are remembered only be the trophy collectors.
Legal Considerations
Gaining permission to trap new stock is possible. Provisions under made under RA9147 could allow for birds to be trapped for breeding purposes – see excerpts:

Section 6. Wildlife Information. ­ All activities, as subsequently manifested under this Chapter, shall be authorized by the Secretary upon proper evaluation of best available information or scientific data showing that the activity is, or for a purpose, not detrimental to the survival of the species or subspecies involved and/or their habitat. For this purpose, the Secretary shall regularly update wildlife information through research.

Section 7. Collection of Wildlife. ­ Collection of wildlife may be allowed in accordance with Section 6 of this Act: Provided, That in the collection of wildlife, appropriate and acceptable wildlife collection techniques with least or no detrimental effects to the existing wildlife populations and their habitats shall, likewise, be required: Provided, further, That collection of wildlife by indigenous people may be allowed for traditional use and not primarily for trade: Provided, furthermore, That collection and utilization for said purpose shall not cover threatened species: Provided, finally, That Section 23 of this Act shall govern the collection of threatened species.

Section 23. Collection of Threatened Wildlife, By-products and Derivatives ­ The collection of threatened wildlife, as determined and listed pursuant to this Act, including its by-products and derivatives, shall be allowed only for scientific, or breeding or propagation purposes in accordance with Section 6 of this Act: Provided, That only the accredited individuals, business, research, educational or scientific entities shall be allowed to collect for conservation breeding or propagation purposes.

To obtain approval to capture birds for breeding purposes a research proposal would need to be submitted to the DENR which meets the requirements outlined in section 6, 7 & 23. If the applicant can’t convince the DENR that they are capable of conducting a capture and breeding program by themselves they may require the cooperation of a leading research institution or registered zoo and an agreement to resource their breeding program. Resources needed might mean paying for a bank of suitable aviaries or funding a masters or PhD student in addition to paying the research costs. Where you build the aviary may be negotiable and possession is always nine tenths of the law. If a captive breeding program is successful that doesn’t automatically give you access to the birds as you would then have to approach the DENR with a further request allowing you to keep and trade the species since the sustainability of the captive population would be threatened by restricting the progeny to few local zoos that could support similar breeding programs and since the captive population would be vulnerable to extinction by being held in only a few places and would eventually suffer from inbreeding depression if they were not allowed to be traded between legitimate aviculturists. The oversight of a bird club could also be useful to ensure that sufficient breeding stock is held to ensure its sustainability. Needless to say that once birds are legitimately and more easily bred this will have a detrimental affect on any existing illegal trade.
What Birds and Conditions Facilitate Domestication?
HenryNichols(2009) hypothesizes that the secret of domestication lies purely in selection for tameness but this is an oversimplification.  The capacity with which any wild animals might become domesticated, regardless of the type of animal, is dependant on six qualities according to Jared Diamond (1998). I’ve paraphrased these in relation to finches below:
1 They must not be panicked by people or other animals. Wild-caught finches do not generally accept the presence of people but do get increasingly conditioned to their presence and if aviary bred will soon associate human presence to the provision of food & water.
2 They must have dietary requirements that can be easily met. Finches are mainly granivorous and require a breeding diet high in protein. For some species this may only be accepted in the form of live insect food which makes their culture more difficult if substitutes are no accepted. As examples here; canaries will accept egg-food as an insect substitute but many African wax-bills and parrot-finches will not.
3 Short generation time compared to a human. Finches live 5-10 years and many breed within the year of hatching, laying 3-6 eggs in a clutch and raising three broods in a year. The short breeding life of finches means that the domestication process needs to be just right or the birds will be wasted compared to longer-lived species like parrots.
4 Birds must have a pleasant disposition. While most finches are gentle, a few are pugnacious towards other birds and must be carefully managed to prevent losses. The Australian crimson or Cuban finches are prime examples of birds that need careful management or they will kill their own kind and others if not managed correctly and this often means more costly aviaries have to be constructed.
5 Birds must have the ability to breed when captive. Here again the capacity for aviculturists to maintain not just breeding conditions but there must be sufficient breeding pairs to underpin the genetic diversity that keeps the species viable in captivity. The African brood parasites (whydahs and indigo birds) are a good case in question – they need to be kept in very large enclosures together with 6-8 of pairs of their breeding hosts which must supplied with enough insects to raise their broods. Even in counties with advanced aviculture, like Australia, this difficult because of the investment needed in order to maintain genetic diversity.
6 Birds must be able to be kept in an enclosure or have a modifiable social dominance hierarchy in which a human becomes the leader of the pack. Most finches can be successfully contained in cages or aviaries but it is the stocking density that needs to be carefully controlled. Since finches aren’t like poultry they aren’t likely to be imprinted on a human and be ranched in the open. It’s an interesting idea, especially for finches with obligate insectivore young; if once a clutch hatches in the aviary that the parents could be free to forage outside and return to feed the young and brood at night if their parenting instincts are strong enough.

While the conditions needed for breeding are probably as varied as the species under consideration, if you work from the precept that wild birds breed in the wild then what is needed is to get these birds to breed in captivity is to simulate those conditions. Research has to be undertaken to find what the target species needs in the wild and how others have succeeded in the past with the same or similar species. Comparing the conditions of wild to captive populations there are a number of hurdles that need to be overcome. These factors are listed in Table 1. Finches are generally fairly adaptable however like most animals they become fixated on the conditions under which they grew up. Fleeing large animals like humans has obvious advantages in the wild and part of this behavior is a matter of cultural transmission but it can be overcome through habituation. Birds on the nest are the most sensitive to disturbance and are likely to desert even advanced young so it should be obligatory to provide any nests with cover and don’t be tempted to peak even if the law requires ring the young (which luckily it doesn’t).
Finches have food requirements that can be met with a correct mix of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals but the accepted from that these take can be fixed on as a matter of exposure rather than an obligate need. The high protein requirements of nestlings are mostly met by insects in the wild but egg food should perform the same function but convincing a wild bird to feed this to their young is difficult. Be prepared to experiment with food – eg mixing egg-food with termites or meal worms. If insects aren’t readily available aviculturist might try supplemental hand-feeding or fostering.
Estrillid finches are stimulated to breed by the seasonal availability of food but in captivity there are no real natural cycles in the tropics to act as reproductive cues. It is up to the aviculturist to create them. It is tempting to feed a breeding diet continuously but according to Fidler this can have undesirable effects – i, weakening of the birds especially the hen and may result in death of the bird; ii, asynchrony of the breeding pair’s reproductive state leading to loss of capacity to breed.

Table 1. Factors likely to affect reproductive capacity in captive birds
Once a species has been chosen as the subject of the domestication process the highest quality stock must be obtained. This means capture and transport should be done in the least stressful swift method.
Obviously the least stressful method would be to foster eggs under a host like society finches and to provision them with suitable food. This may not always be possible as nests are not easily found and unless the captive host birds are kept on site incubation of the eggs during transport would be problematic. Another difficulty is not knowing the exact age of the clutch since, for best results, the timing of hatching should coincide with the expected hatching date of the host’s own clutch. Fostering has been used to bring difficult species like the West Australian red-eared fire-tailed finch into captivity but this toehold is tenuous because of the narrow genetic base and the aggressive nature of the bird as it can only be kept as pairs. Foster parents need to be treated for any possible disease before the eggs hatch as many birds can harbor sub-clinical infections for worms, mites or pathogenic yeast or bacteria for which the hatchlings will have no resistance. Once raised by their foster parents in captivity the acquired progeny are more likely to be used to enclosed conditions and habituated to humans in close proximity. The fostered birds should be removed from the parents as soon as they are independent (generally 3-4 weeks after fledging) as lessens the chances of the young becoming sexually imprinted on their host species. The fostered youngsters need to be monitored for aggression while they mature and rung. Ringing is essential so that individuals can be distinguish and paired up and for this I recommend colored plastic split rings as fitting them can be done at any time and different colors mean that birds an be distinguished from a distance
Obtaining adult birds is the most likely route to domestication. As previously stated, reducing stress is the key to ensuring survival and from that base, maintenance and breeding can occur. Harman & Vriends (1978) emphasize the need to ensure that newly captured birds don’t become wet or chilled. While temperatures in the Philippines are usually unlikely to be detrimental to new birds every care should be taken to ensure that the birds don’t become wet or exposed to drafts especially in the December-January period.
Disease too is another source of stress that will either kill birds outright or depress their reproductive potential. Wild birds in particular need to be treated for common ailments and as a matter of course should be wormed and treated for coccidiosis when received and 3-4 times a year there after. Many wild birds carry sub-clinical infections which will manifest once caught either because of stress or because the bird was self medicating. Water must be changed daily and fecal matter not allowed to accumulate in feed dishes – a hopper-style feeder will assist with this. Bacteria and avian gastric yeast can be suppressed by the addition of 10mL (2 tsp) of apple cider vinegar per liter of drinking/bathing water. If birds are dying they should be immediately submitted for necroscopy to determine the cause of death if this is not possible the refrigerate or freeze the body until it can be inspected. The veterinary school at UPLB charges only P100 for this service and an additional charge of P100 for each microscope test. Mercurio et.al. (2007) has reported base level hematological values for healthy wild chestnut munia which may assist your veterinarian.
A prerequisite for breeding is of course to have birds of opposite sex. Sex ratios in captive birds are nearly always biased in favor of males and this may be so even in wild birds as evidevced during necroscopic examination of a random sample of 29 chestnut munia at UPLB of which only 11 were female (Mercurio et.al. 2007). In many species, particularly munias and parrotfinches, the sexes are not usually discernable (sexually monomorphic) so obtaining only a single pair is inadequate and would lead to a dangerous genetic bottle-neck if no other stock were introduced at a later date. Finches are generally too small to be surgically sexed but they can be DNA sexed. As far as I know DNA sexing is not available in the Philippines, although I have heard that Birds International may be doing it. Having this done outside the Philippines would probably breach the quarantine requirements or CITIES obligations of the counties which host this technology since feathers, blood or DNA would have to be sent though the post and gaining the correct export and import permits is beyond the capacity of most individuals.  You are welcome to try these DNA sexing companies Molecular Diagnostic Laboratories (South Africa), DNA Solutions (various locations costs AUD$16.90/bird in Australia).  Perhaps this represents a business opportunity for someone? Careful observation of birds in breeding condition is generally a reliable way of sexing birds. Males will often sing, initiate a mating dances while holding grass in their beaks and mount females. Females invariably incubate eggs at night (except in the brood parasites).
Establishing at firm pair bond will give better results than just placing birds together just because they are opposite sex. If there is the possibility of letting the birds choose their own mates this too should give stronger pair-bonds and lead to better breeding success than just placing birds together. For this reason too obtaining more than a single pair is wise. Once pairs have been identified any unpaired birds should be removed as they may be disruptive – especially supernumerary males. In small aviaries it is likely that only the dominant pair will breed.
The way in which birds are trapped too may influence how they adapt to captivity. Shephard (1994) reported that Australian finch trappers believed that by feeding commercial finch mixes at trapping sites, to attract birds, that they were selecting types that preferred the domesticated diet. This may be so, but Franklin et al (1999) indicates that flocking behavior was exploited by commercial trappers who relied on netting whole flocks of non-breeding birds were readily caught as they sought water and feed at the dwindling waterholes during the dry season. The use of captive caller-birds to entice wary flocks into these trap zones was so successful that it was banned (Franklin et al 1999).
In the past some advocated wing clipping as a way of calming birds brought into captivity (Harman & Vriends 1978) and while it may appear to assist with the process of habituating the bird (because it soon realizes that it can’t escape) I don’t condone it. Helplessness doesn’t equate with calmness around people – a study of cortisol levels between wing-clipped and control birds would soon show if this is the case.
Domesticating the Philippine Finches
Table 2 lists the extant native and feral Estrillid finches. There are other Frigillid finches (Erasian tree sparrow, Eurasian siskin, Brambling, Philippine bull-finch, White-cheeked bull-finch, Mountain serin, Luzon cross-bill, Little bunting, Yellow bunting, Yellow-breasted bunting) but I’m not familiar with them and won’t discuss these species. Canary breeders however might think it useful to introgress photoperiod insensitivity from the mountain serin – if this cross is not sterile.
One of the most widely kept finches in the Philippines, if not the world, is a domesticated Lonchura species known as the society / bengalese finch and it Philippine relatives have all been domesticated overseas and are available in Australia, Europe and north America. Looking at the older literature it seems that many were considered difficult to breed when first brought in from the wild but either through habituation to captive conditions or selection these birds are now considered relatively free breeders. Perhaps the most serious threat to their genetic integrity is their capacity to form fertile hybrids so care must be taken to house the species separately and to destroy any hybrid progeny.

Table 2 the Philippine finches and their probability of domestication given all resources. §Score for ease of domestication based on overseas experience and present experience in the Philiippines;***** – Very likely, **** -Good Chance, *** – Possible, ** – Outside chance. * – Unlikely

Of the wild munias found in the Philippines, I have only ever seen domesticated Java sparrows for sale. Captive bred wild-type (grey) birds are less common than the white form in captivity and sell for around P800 a pair compared to P400 for wild caught birds. According to Harman & Vriends (1978) the wild birds are not free breeders and they recommend pairing them up with a white (and therefore domesticated) bird and from this F1 generation a more free-breeding type will be produced. For breeding purposes they recommend a budgerigar-type box and state that the provision of soft-food is usual but unnecessary. Of course if you want pure wild-type the process will be more difficult or involve a series of back-crosses.

Figure 1. Philippine munias (Clocckwise from Top LHS: a, Scaly-breasted munia; b, White-bellied munia; c, Java sparrow & d, Chesnut munia)

 Scaly breasted munias (Spice finches Fig.1a) are highly adaptable birds that have established feral populations in many parts of the world including the USA and Australia. In the Philippines they are commonly associated with rice fields and fallow areas where they feed on rice and other seeding grasses. Harman & Vriends (1978) recommend that breeding birds not be disturbed at all but captive populations in Australian aviaries have overcome this initial shyness (Shephard 1994). It is important to supply a variety of green food, eggfood, and soaked seed according to the Avian Web. Provision of live food is optional but for wild caught birds it would probably be better to err on the side of caution and give it to them. According to Shephard (1994) all munias have similar requirements and prefer to construct their own nests in aviary brush rather than use more exposed boxes.  Cauchi (2008) found that Chensnut munias in Australia accept cane baskets for nest and apart from being difficult to sex are relatively free breeders.

Figure 2. Philippine Parrotfinches, Clocwise fron top LHS: a, Greenfaced; b, Red-eared; c, Pin-tailed; d, Bamboo)

Parrotfinches are amongst the most colorful and desirable of the finches and the Philippine representatives are no exception. The exotic Gouldian belongs to this group and is one of the most commonly kept finches in the Philippines. The Gouldian however is not representative of the group in that it is adapted to dry conditions and doesn’t require live food or fruit in order to thrive. Harman and Vriends (1978) mention that wild-caught Gouldians sold in the UK before the Australian export ban were considered delicate birds which needed to be housed at around 30oC. Domestication has transformed this bird in to a hardy bird that can withstand temperatures less than 5oC in outside aviaries but is still prone sickness compared to other finches particularly air-sac mites and it is reasonable to assume that other parrotfinches are likewise susceptible. Most parrot-finches are forest or forest-edge dwelling and their populations periodically explode when supplies of bamboo seed is available. Good parrotfinch information can be found on Carlos Mendigutia’s site (http://www.theparrotfinches.com/ ) and the Erythrura site. In Australia it is considered important to give parrotfinches access to fruit, especially slices of cucumber and fresh water for bathing. Parrot finches have a preference for nesting in boxes similar to those used for Gouldians, however for wild sourced birds these should be shielded from prying eyes with brush.
The pin-tailed parrotfinch’s only known toehold in the Philippines is on the slopes of Mt. Mantalingahan, Palawan (Fig 2d) but it is more common on Borneo and mainland Asia. Like the Gouldian, wild caught pin-tailed parrot finches are considered to be delicate birds and unlikely to breed using the systems employed in the 1970s (Harman & Vriends 1978). In Europe,  Crosbie (2002) have hatched many broods from wild sourced birds and from what I can glean the secret appears to be house the birds in an aviary with plenty of cover, feed from an elevated platform, supply fortified egg-food and sprouted seed. It appears that this species can not be readily parent reared without green-seed and live food as is mentioned on the Erythrura site. The latter site recommends that temperatures remain at 25oC or above. The pin-tailed parrotfinch is very rare in Australian aviaries so I assume that this species is not readily brought into aviculture and rarely breeds in cages according to Rindom (2008) and Birdcare.
Bamboo parrotfinches are found throughout South East Asia in montaine bamboo thickets where temperatures can go down to 0oC according to the Erythrura site. In the Philippines it is found on Palawan, Mindanao and southern Luzon. In Australia stocks of this species are at critically low levels but considering that no imports have been possible since 1945 it appears that the species is barely amenable to sustainable aviculture without in injection of fresh blood-lines. This species needs cover in the aviary, soaked or sprouted seed, egg and live food according to the Erythrura site.
The green-faced parrotfinch is another bird of the forest edge and bamboo forests in Luzon and Negros (DENR ). The Philippine government issued export permits for 90 green-faced parrotfinches in 1990 (NSCB) but listed its status as threatened in the following year (TANGGOL). The bird was first introduced into Europe in 1966 but has never been a free breeder and with the cessation of exports of this bird from Luzon in the early 1990s small populations has been maintained but there is little first-hand information I can track which suggest that this bird is very difficult to establish in captivity. When bamboo is flowering it can be found in large numbers according to the Wild Bird Club.
The red-eared parrotfinch comes from the forested slopes of Mt. Katinglad on Mindanao is more common than once thought but is listed as near threatened (Birdwatch). In captivity it will breed in colonies or in single pairs and unlike the other Philippine parrotfinches is spends much of it’s time foraging on the ground for seed. While not common in Europe it appears to have become established in captivity according to the Erythura site. Luc Wolfs of Bird-Exports.com regularly offers this bird and so it could be re-imported from Belgium.  Rindom (2008) notes that in captivity red-ears spend a lot of time on the floor forraging so hygiene must be a priority the birds are bred in half open nest boxes.
Nests and Nesting Materials
As previously mentioned munias prefer to construct their own nests in aviary brush, although Java sparrows prefer a budgie or half open box. Not surprisingly, parrotfinches require a Gouldian type box.. As a general rule twice as many boxes as pair of birds should be provided and these should be at various heights throughout the aviary. Brush-wood is not easy to come by in the Philippines the best I can come up with is Callistemon viminalis (bottle-brush Fig 3) branches as they retain their leaf for longer than most plants when dried.

Figure 3 Callistemon viminalis a common myrtaceous shrub

Figure 4 Bottle palm

The dried inflorescences of the bottle palms (Mascarena lagenicaulis, Fig 4), tied together or placed into a basket of reinforcing mesh also works quite well. In the wild, birds utilize a range of nesting materials and for at least the first generation as wide as possible range should be experimented with until you are sure what is needed. A good range would include:

Figure 5 Tiger grass brooms

• Fresh & dried Panicum seed heads (remains of the green seed fed) and leaves
• Tiger grass broom cut into loose pieces
• Coir (coconut fiber)
• Oven dried Imperata cylindricata heads (must be oven dried or will go moldy)
• Kapok
• White chicken feathers (I get mine from feather pillows)

Summary of Domestication
Breeding any bird requires the application of species specific knowledge – especially of it’s behavior and ecology within it’s home range. The general principals outlined below should therefore be seen as a guide rather than a definitive answer.
• Obtain birds legally – preferably ones already habituated to captive conditions
• Share the burden and the chances of success by acting cooperatively with fellow aviculturists
• Prophylactically treat birds for worms, parasites and diseases before attempting to breed.
• Provide the birds with as spacious an aviary as possible, preferably by themselves and away from high traffic areas.
• Provide lots of cover within the aviary so that the birds are able to retreat into it when approached. If possible the flight should be planted and completely roofed with polycarbonate sheeting.
• Disturb the birds as little as possible by using hopper-style feeders and a feeding station attached to an outside wall so as to avoid entering the aviary.
• Provide a varied diet and experiment with new food and supplements, keeping only those that are accepted.
• Always give live-food unless it’s demonstrated that they don’t utilize it.
• Provide a range of nesting receptacles and nesting materials.
• Keep stocking density low, preferably in single species enclosures and remove young as soon as they are independent.
• Do not include congeneric or other species likely to hybridize with the target species in the same enclosure
• Pairs consisting of a wild sourced bird with a captive bred bird are an easier way to introduce new blood-lines that using only wild birds.
• Fostering is an option if you have immediate access to wild sourced eggs or you wish to get the parent birds to lay a second clutch sooner or change any food fixation that will make management easier.
• Try to provide as many natural foods as possible so as to create a natural breeding cycle
• Don’t breed continuously as it weakens birds – generally 3 clutches per year
• Don’t inbreed or your domestic line will be weakened since deleterious gene combinations will show up more often requiring culling of valuable stock.
• Work as a cooperative group to increase the chances of success: increase the genetic base is captive stock, try out different conditions, share the cost of large aviaries.
• If your birds do breed don’t be tempted to inspect nests until after the young have fledged
• Provide suitable nesting materials and sites in excess to the birds requirements

References

Cauchi, R (2008) The black-headed nuns of Asia. Australain Aviary Life May-June 2008: 16-17.

Diamond, J (1998) The evolution of guns and germs in Fabian, A. C. Evolution: society, science, and the universe. Volume 9 of  The Darwin College lectures. Quarterly Review of Biology, 73:46-63.

Franklin, D.C; Burbidge. A.H; Destine, P. L. (1999) The harvest of wild birds for aviculture: an historical perspective on finch trapping in the Kimberley with special emphasis on the Gouldian Finch. Australian Zoologist 31: 92-109. http://www.rzsnsw.org.au/publications/AZ31-1/AZ_31-1_Franklin_etal_92-109.pdf

Harman, I; Vriends, M.M. (1978) All about Finches and Related Seed Eating Birds. T.F.H Publications Inc, Hong Kong.

Mercurio, DDG; Marte1, BRG; Cruzana, BC. (2007) Hematological Values of Chestnut Mannikin (Lonchura malacca) Caught in Laguna.  Philipp. J. Vet. Med. 45: 63-66. http://journals.uplb.edu.ph/index.php/PJVM/article/viewFile/92/90

Rindom, P (2008) Parrot Finches Pt 2 – Their Breeding. Just Finches and Softbills 17:30-34.

Shephard, M. (1994) Aviculture in Australia: Keeping and Breeding Aviary Birds.  Reed New Holland, Sydney.

Off line – http://homepage.ntlworld.com/lonchura/page37.html

Feeding green seeding grass heads to finches should be considered a must by serious finch breeders.  Dried, mature heads of millet sold at the pet store as a treat have no additional food value and are costly but do offer a form of environmental enrichment that is often lacking for cage and cabinet housed birds.  While some species apparently live on a dry seed diet alone they are unlikely to thrive and seemingly unrelated aspects of biology such as the hatchling sex ratio may be affected if nutritional stress is not corrected.  One of the best online articles discussing feeding seeding grass is by Doug Hill & Marcus Pollard from the South Australian Finch Society but most sites do mention the benefits of feeding green seed.  Another good technical resource is ariticle “Waxbill Dietary Requirements” by Ian Hinze on the finch world site.

 Benefits

All birds have a high requirement for protein during early growth and need access to a source of high quality protein like that found in egg-food, insects and green seed.  Allen and Humes’s (2001) research shows that while the zebra finch has an unusually low maintenance requirement for protein, access to high quality protein during the neonate period limits its reproduction.  The smaller fledglings that result when birds receive inadequate diets not only results in higher mortality but the birds themselves never fully recover and compared to a matching well fed cohort – they remain stunted, are less sexually attractive and have lower reproductive potential (Arnold et al 2006). 

Research on the dietary requirements of granivorous birds and mammals has shown that access to supplies of green seeds are a necessary component of a successful breeding diet and according to Mike Fidler, one of the world’s leading finch aviculturists, it is the production and access to copious supplies of green seed that actually triggers the reproductive phase in all member of the Estrilididae.  The explosive population growth seen during mouse plagues and birds like wild zebra finches and budgies at the beginning of 2009 (see Perth Now) are directly related to favorable rainfall resulting in abundant supplies of ripening seed.  Ripening seed as opposed to mature grain results in much higher growth rates and increased reproductive potential for both mice and zebra finches (Allen & Hume 1997, Arnold et al 2006, Blount et al 2006, Mutze 2007, White 2002).  Using the zebra finch as a model it appears that ripening seed is the limiting factor for successful reproduction in finches so that no matter how complete a dry seed mix is, it can not replace the need for green seed.  Even if the nutritional value were the same, dry seed has to be consumed with water and grit and may swell to such an extent that it could be potentially lethal as has been reported in stock fed on dry grain.  For a hatchling accessing the nutrients in the seed itself is easier and less risky since green seeds have a softer texture and contain higher levels of soluble proteins and amino acids. 

Allen & Hume’s (1997) work showed that essential amino acids present in ripening seed are absent from mature seed.  Using wheat as a model grass, Howarth et al (2008) found that the amino acid glutamine accumulates in the developing grain within the first 7 days after fertilization that and after this point is converted to other amino acids.  The early stage of grain filling is characterized by liquid as opposed to the later stage of cellular and solid endosperm (hence the common term “milk” or “milky” stage seed) and it is especially nutritious because each developing grain contains it’s entire compliment of protein and amino acids but with little of the carbohydrate to dilute it so on a dry weight basis it’s no wonder that Allen & Hume’s (1997) found it clustered with egg in their analysis.

The health benefits of green seed are not only limited to the early growth phase.  In provisioning for an egg hens need access to a good protein source or they will take it from their own tissues (Cottom et al 2001, Houston et al 1995).  This loss of condition is what actually “exhausts” a hen and why breeders recommend only allowing a hen to only lay 2-3 clutches per year and then to rest and recover for the remaining part of the year.  If this is not done then the bird may be lost. David Pace believes that by feeding green seed that this prevents egg binding which makes sense in the light of the tissue loss that can occur in birds if they are not given an adequate diet.

Lastly it must be acknowledged that giving green seed heads to birds is a form of environmental enrichment and stimulation which is lacking for cage and cabinet-bred birds.  While finches do not appear to suffer the same psychological disorders or degree of distress that some captive parrots exhibit, giving them access to seed heads gives tehn the opportunity to exhibit natural behaviors and to explore.  The Toronto Zoo maintains an on-line list of the literature in this area if you care to read more on this subject. 

 I can’t leave this topic without saying how much I actually enjoy foraging for my birds and seeing what is available at various times of the year too.  Watching wild and captive birds picking through the seed heads is reward in itself when you know how good it is for them.  In Northern Europe access to seeding grasses is very limited compared to America, SE Asia, Australia or South Africa which is why they have developed complex supplements and pelletized complete diets to simulate the breeding diet of wild birds.  For this service aviculture must be grateful but such artificial fare should not be seen as a replacement for the real thing if you can provide it.

Sorting grasses in the morning prior to feeding

I can’t leave this topic without saying how much I actually enjoy foraging for my birds and seeing what is available at various times of the year too.  Watching wild and captive birds picking through the seed heads is reward in itself when you know how good it is for them.  In Northern Europe access to seeding grasses is very limited compared to America, SE Asia, Australia or South Africa which is why they have developed complex supplements and pelletized complete diets to simulate the breeding diet of wild birds.  For this service aviculture must be grateful but such artificial fare should not be seen as a replacement for the real thing if you can provide it.

Hazards

After reading all the good news about green seed it’s hard to imagine that feeding green seed has its disadvantage but they certainly exist and can be serious.  When you bring materials into your aviary you are potentially introducing hazards to you must ensure that these hazards are minimized.  Ensure that the grasses you select are of the highest quality and that it is correctly stored and fed or you may find that your birds will die.  The tools of evolution are harsh so you must be aware of the hazards unless you are prepared for heavy losses via introduction of: i, Pest & pathogens; ii, Toxemia & mycoses; iii, Reproductive exhaustion & Loss of life cycle synchronization.

Pests & Pathogens.Wild birds will have discovered your green seed supply long before you do and through subsequent fecal or other contamination you may be taking in a range of pests and pathogens like mites, coccidia or mega bacteria.  Keep a close look out for these diseases in your birds and treat them immediately.  Alternatively you can dip your collected heads into a suitable disinfecting agent like Virkon S (Bayer) and allow the heads to dry off in a cool dry place before storing them.  Vikon S will not affect your birds but equally it will not treat endophytic fungi.

Toxemia and mycoses.Fungal hyphe permeate the intra cellular spaces of even healthy looking plants and many produce alkaloids or other toxins which can if ingested in large enough quantities can alter a bird’s metabolism, behavior, reproduction or kill it out right.  For this reason you should avoid obviously smutted heads on any grass (particularly common in Panicum spp late in the season), sclerotia-like ergots or any other obvious fungal bodies. 

Poor storage, particularly from seed kept too long without refrigeration or from fallen seed in the aviary can promote fungal growth and some of these produce toxins.  Aftatoxins are a particularly nasty group of chemicals produced by Aspergillus spp and these will kill birds or even cause cancers.  Other Aspergillus species can actually grow in the birds’ tissue particularly in the lungs and air sacs.  For more about systemic mycoses look on the Multiscope site.

Some aviculturist may think that drying off green seed heads might prove to be a suitable way in which to provide birds with their essential nutrients at times when fresh supplies are unavailable however this is not a long term solution.  The very reason that green seeds are fed is to provide the vitamins and amino acids that are necessary for successful reproduction however they have very limited self-life at room temperature in air.  The affinity that anti-oxidant vitamins like vitamin A have for oxygen means that they can not be stored for long periods under ambient conditions without losing their potency.  Dr Fitzgerald of the Grain Quality, Nutrition and Post Harvest unit of the International Rice Research Institute (pers com 2009) believes that there is strong evidence that the breakdown products of oxidative degradation of β-carotene are actually toxic so long-term storage of green seed could actually be harmful.  According to Summerburg et al (2003) the cleavage products produced by degradation of β-Carotene are highly reactive and so are potentially toxic.  So to be conservative don’t store green seed unless you’re prepared to freeze it or dry it down and then hermetically seal it away from oxygen. 

While unlikely to be more than a supplement the vitamins available in green seeding grasses may add an additional toxic load to a birds system particularly if you are feeding artificial vitamin supplements.  The condition, known as hypervitaminosis varies according to the excess vitamin ingested with side effects ranging from minor to mortal!.  Hyperviatminosis is well characterized for humans and it probably manifests similarly in birds – refer to Hypervitaminosis A;  Hypervitaminosis D; Hypervitaminosis E .

Reproductive exhaustion and loss of life-cycle synchronization.  According to Mike Fidler and others like Ian Hinze, Estrilid finches are opportunistic breeders, with food and not daylight triggering breeding and other aspects of their lifecycle.  In captivity of course the natural cycles of food availability which signal changes are absent unless the aviculturists reproduces them.  With little effort any food/nutrient can be available at any time of the year and it is probably a mistake to think that your birds need only a breeding diet.  If birds are allowed to continually breed the hens in particular are likely to become run-down and may die because they deplete their bodies of essential amino acids, proteins, calcium and essential fatty acids while laying eggs.

Figure 1 a Mike Fidler’s Gouldian Life Cycle (After Mike Fidler).  By rotating the inner core of management practices aviculturists can manipulate their birds lifecycle to suit their individual needs as shown in the next figure.

Mike Fidler has proposed seven management periods in which husbandry practices, particularly diet and pairing are used to control the birds breeding, body condition and molting.  By imposing this regime all birds synchronize their life cycles and this makes management easier.  In theory this should work for all the Estrilid finches (Australian grass finches, parrot finches, African waxbills, strawberry finches and munias) but it may not apply to other finches – in canaries for example day length is critical for triggering reproduction.  In the wild or for aviculturists within the Gouldian’s former range their lifecycle should follow that shown in Figure 1a, however since the lifecycle can be manipulated to suit the needs of the aviculturist, I am proposing to use the one illustrated in Figure 1b for Luzon in the Philippines.  In temperate Australia a cycle 6 month out of phase with the wild cycle (Fig 1) would be better suited to the cold winters.

The key to adapting the Estrilid cycle to aviculture is to introduce an “austerity period” in which all nutritional supplements with the exception of grits and minerals are withdrawn for a period of two weeks just after breeding to trigger a moult. Following the austerity moult, supplements are slowly reintroduced so that the birds can build condition ready for reproduction.  In this respect providing green and/or sprouted seed should be considered a supplement and withdrawn during the austerity and only give twice per week during the maintenance period.  For most breeders in temperate climates this break is most convenient to coincide with winter but in the wet tropics it comes down to individual preference since there may be green seed and suitable temperatures available all year but perhaps other factors like storms and high humidity which can stress the birds.  For my own needs my timing will be determined by my annual home leave back to Australia from the Philippines.

Fidler’s recommended managements diet are as follows:

Selection, Collection & Storage

Since the objective of feeding seeding grasses is to use the green seed as a nutritional supplement to dry seeds, care has to be taken to select grass at the right stage.  To do this you need to become familiar with grass “flowers” (also called florets or spiklets) and a good place to start is Wikipedia.  If you look carefully, each grass floret while it is flowering (i.e. open & receptive to pollination) you will see it is surrounded by two bracts (the lemma and palea), these separate for a few hours while the 6 stamens elongate and shed their pollen onto the fluffy stigmas (often purple or white).  After shedding pollen, the floret’s bracts close leaving the dried stamens and often the stigmas exposed for a few days before they too are shed. 

If heads are taken before flowering there is no seed (but an excellent source of nesting material) and if taken too late the vitamin & proteins/amino acids are less available.  Since most grass heads will take at least a week for all florets to have completed flowering, the best time for the most nutritious green seeds is going to be around a week after the last flowers on the head have finished flowering.  At this stage the panicle should be well above the flag (last) leaf.  Grain that is already falling is mature even if not fully ripened and will not be as beneficial to the birds as the younger grains which adhere tightly to the plants. 

Grass should be collected early in the morning as soon as the dew has dried off. The heads should be kept in closed polythene bag in the refrigerator and used within four days, after which time the immature grains senesce and are less nutritious and there is an increased risk of fungal spoilage.

Threshing panic grass-heads into a seive-box. Lower bunch has been stripped of grain

If you want to make the most of the green seed supplies the heads can be threshed or beaten to release the seed which can then be fed to the birds in a dish or as part of their wet soft-food rations.  For threshing I use a simple sieve however modifications could increase grain recovery rates.  Once threshed, it may be worth putting the grain through a finer sieve to remove extraneous or harmful inclusions like stalks and smutted florets.  Threshed seed can also be conveniently frozen and fed at times when fresh seed is unavailable.

One important point in selecting your grass – make sure it hasn’t been sprayed with herbicide or pesticides.  This is a constant worry for me collecting rice and barn-yard grass heads from the paddies.  In Australia herbicides are frequently used on the road-side verges where good supplies are often found.

Feeding

I used to feed heads by just throwing them on the floor but after reading Doug Hill and Marcus Pollard’s article warning against the dangers of disease transmission and fungal toxicity I decided to place them in feeders up near the perches and I find this much better for a number of reasons: i), there is a lessened disease risk; ii), the seed is presented in a more natural feeding position; iii), the feeding birds are on display; iv) the heads dry down during the day and can be reused as nesting material and dried material won’t support fungal growth.

When feeding grass heads place them upright, in some type of holder, against the wire or near a perch.  Suitable holders I have used include specimen vases, small plastic bottles and rat traps.  Don’t crowd the stems as the birds have to be able to access all parts and it is a waste of your time to have many heads uneaten and discarded each day.

As was previously mentioned threshed green seed can be fed either directly or included in the soft-food mix, however I have not personally done the latter.  When feeding any grain in a dish, green or mature, place it in a wide, shallow bowl to allow the birds to pick through it as finches won’t dig deep and again you don’t want your efforts wasted.  Discard any unused seed/husk every day and replace with fresh seed.

How much seed to give will depend on how many birds you have and how many nests with chicks there are your enclosure.  Watch your birds and examine the waste and you will soon work out amounts.  As a rough guide for threshed Panicum I would give around teaspoon per bird per day.  This may appear excessive but many of the florets are sterile and contain no seed.

Suitable Species

Where you are will determine what and when is available to you.  Having read Doug Hill & Marcus Pollard’s article  I was surprised that most of the grasses they mentioned were also here in the Philippines and if not the same species then there were closely related species.

One important point in selecting your grass – make sure it hasn’t been sprayed with herbicide or pesticides.  This is a constant worry for me collecting rice and barn-yard grass heads from the paddies.  In Australia herbicides are frequently used on the road-side verges where good supplies are often found. 

 Sources of Seed

Fnch keepers keep a close eye on the grasses growing on road-side verges, fields, abandoned lots and drainage ditches as they drive around.  In the Philippines herbicides are rarely used but in Australia you have to be certain that the local council hasn’t sprayed before you collect.  These wild sources of seed give rural dwellers an advantage over their urban counterparts who will have to grow a limited supply or substitute sprouted seed and supplements.  Of course good grain supplies will support rodent and they in turn support snakes so wear appropriate protective footwear and long pants when collecting seed from the wild.Green seed is natural, cheap and readily available high protein food for finch breeders.  Research has shown that green seed is essential for successful finch reproduction in the wild.  It can be tedious at times to collect green seed if you aren’t in a rural area but it can also be grown and at times of abundant supply it can be threshed and frozen.  Alternatives like sprouted grain seed and manufactured supplements can also be used but even if these are just as nutritious they don’t provide the environmental enrichment and challenge of alighting on a stem, choosing & removing a grain and then removing the husk.  This is what finches are adapted to do and to deny them the opportunity to express these behaviors will affect not only the birds but your pockets.

 Growing your own is a possibility if you have the right climate.  I’ve tried to grow French millet here in the Philippines but because of the short day length it seeds as about 5cm without tillering.  Certainly I have such an abundant supply that I don’t need to grow any but the perennial Setaria species can easily be maintained and are quite ornamental.  Panicum and Johnson’s grass could also be easily cultivated and of course forage grasses like signal grass and Phalaris (canary) grass or commercial crops like rice can be sourced cheaply from a rural seed supply business but make sure the seed is not dressed!  Doug Hill and Marcus Pollard’s article mentions that they grow out their own finch mixes so this is a possibility for anyone with a spare garden bed.  For some general information about types of millets and other bird seeds to grow  the Queensland Department of Primary Industries has some good on-line resources.

Conclusion

Green seed is natural, cheap and readily available high protein food for finch breeders.  Research has shown that green seed is essential for successful finch reproduction in the wild.  It can be tedious at times to collect green seed if you aren’t in a rural area but it can also be grown and at times of abundant supply it can be threshed and frozen.  Alternatives like sprouted grain seed and manufactured supplements can also be used but even if these are just as nutritious they don’t provide the environmental enrichment and challenge of alighting on a stem, choosing & removing a grain and then removing the husk.  This is what finches are adapted to do and to deny them the opportunity to express these behaviors will affect not only the birds but your pockets.

 References

Red heads don't mix with Black heads (Photo Sarah Pryke)

Yesterday I came across a new article on the ABC web site with some very interesting news for Gouldian breeders.  If you have subscription to  you can read the actual academic article too from Sarah R. Pryke and Simon C. Griffith (2009) Genetic Incompatibility Drives Sex Allocation and Maternal Investment in a Polymorphic Finch. Science , 20 March 2009: Vol. 323. no. 5921, pp. 1605 – 1607.  I have a PDF file of this if anyone is particularly interested then contact me and I can send it to you.

Ringing birds is something I’ve never done but with my recent successes and multiple nests threatening to cause confusion I investigated the ringing process to help identify my birds.  As I only have a small number of birds I didn’t think that it was necessary to go to the expense of having closed , numbered bands so I got some split plastic rings from Ebay.  They aren’t the best rings but they are more than adequate for large finches or canaries.  Smaller sizes are available as these are actually fusible hobby beads and have long been used for ringing birds (see Hill (1992)).  To see what these beads are really used for have a look on Flick.com.  Of course if you buy them as beads you have to use a razor to split them which is easy as they are soft polythene.  Split plastic bands can be applied to any birds over the age of 10-12 days but closed banding can only be done at this time.  For more on closed banding visit the Zebra  finch society’s website.

Split plastic rings and home-made applicator. Size selection is important; small rings (L) for Owl finches and larger ones (R) for bigger birds like Cut-throats. Scale in millimeters.

The rings I purchased didn’t come with an applicator so I fashioned some by cutting a pair from the top of an aluminium soft-drink can using a pair of sturdy scissors.  I expected the edges to be sharp but they are aren’t dangerous at all, however the fine shaving made in the process are -so beware!

The first thing to do when using split plastic bands is to choose one of an appropriate size and load it onto the applicator with the split side spread open across the channel as shown above.  Next  capture your bird and hold it belly up in your subordinate hand as illustrated in the photo. Using your dominant hand, place the open channel of the applicator on the birds leg and using your fingernail slide the ring off the applicator and onto the leg  as shown in the next photograph.  Now, pinch the ring to ensure closure  and be careful not to pinch the leg in the open part of the ring.  The bird is now identified using whatever system you choose.  I am using red and yellow to distinguish my two breeding cut-throat families.  My Owl finch progeny are banded with blue as you can see from the photographs.  Unfortunately 3 days after I fitted the bands a snake got into my aviary again and ate my first ever owls here.

Nestling with split band fitted.

Fostering is also used to save abandoned  babies or nests with excessive babies with too wider age spread.  The latter is quite common if birds start incubating before they have completed laying thier clutch.  It must also be stated that egg smugglers also typically use this method of introducing new species or bloodlines but new DNA based identification proceedures have made this a risky proposition in more developed countries. Of course you can hand-rear birds but that is an extremely time consuming and the mixes and impliments aren’t easy to come by in the Philippines.  If you want to read up on hand-rearing then a good place to start is the Queensland Environmental Protection Authority site but there are others if you search the web.

 

While I’m against interspecific fostering as a way of life in aviculture I have used intra-specific fostering to save chicks from poor parents.  Earlier this year I found it necessary to move cut-throat chicks between nests as I have one very productive pair and a new pair that, which after three consecutive nests, I know barely manages get their chicks through the first week before the hatchlings starve to death.  Luckily last time, both nested synchonously and each started off with 6 chicks, however because they started incubating after the third egg the developmental difference in their chicks ages doomed the youngest hatchlings from both nests from the outset.  Although I gradually transferred all the chicks to the good parents when it was apparent that the pair in my second aviary couldn’t cope they eventually fledged 4 young.  For the ”good pair” I’m pleased with the result as that equals the maximum they have ever raised but since this was one more than survived from the original hatching it’s a very good result.  For the “bad-pair” you might just see them at Cartimar after Christmas as I would rather breed from birds that can look after themselves.

Interspecic fostering

As you may have gathered from part 1 you can use star finches to foster gouldian’s however in my experience Gouldians are much better parents than stars.  The most common choice of foster parents for Estrillid finches however are either zebra or society finches and there are pluses and minuses for both species.  A big plus for both species is that they are prolific breeders and so their price is relatively cheap.  According to Zann (1996) the zebra finch is a much more attentive parent than the society finch, however they aren’t as easily induced to accept a eggs or young.  According to a study by Care (1982) the stronger interactions that young suggests that imprinting is likely to be stronger when using zebras. 

Society finches are basically a GMO, selected for breeding insticts so strong that that some birds, regardless of sex or previous conditioning will accept eggs or young. I had an interesting case of inter-familial fostering occurred in my aviary when I was a kid between a pair of female diamond doves and a young red-browed finch that I acquired (from the wild).  The young finch’s incessent begging to any birds willing to come close eventually paid off with the doves coughing up.  With the right birds any fostering combination appears possible.  According to the Finch Information Center (and thanks for the sociey photo), societies will also hyridise with other Lonchura species as will as genera (Amandina, Erythrura, Poephila, Uraeginthus) so they are best not kept in mixed collections.  

Societies, like any other foster species are best at their job when their reproduction is synchonised to that of the dononors and according to Garrie Landry you need 4 pairs of fosters for every donor pair in order to ensure synchronisation.  Another good site with specific fostering instructions is Kathy Landry’s (- I don’t know if these two Landry’s are related).  A very detailed account of how to foster Gouldians has been posed on Gouldian Finch Info if you want really detailed information for that species. 

So where does this leave my view on fostering?  I’m still against interspecific fostering but even nature conspires to create such things so I can’t afford to be too critical of those that practice it.  For those that have the time and inclination to manage banks of society finch cages this is certainly a way to increase productivity. Now that I’ve got foundation birds capable to raising their own young  I will endeavour to keep those lines alive and doing what they are supposed to do – sustaining themselves.

This year I purchased another pair of stars, waited for them to mature and in October they too started to make their own nest in a fern against the side of the aviary.  Not wanting to risk losing the nest in a storm I protected it by hanging a piece of perspex (plexi-glass) against the wire.  I then sat back and waited and noticed that at various times one or other of the pair was missing so I presumed they were incubating. I usually can’t help myself looking in nests but because of the way this nest was constructed I couldn’t see what was inside but I could listen and by mid-November I could hear chicks begging for food. I resisted the urge to take a closer look for ten days and then I noticed the parents leaving the nest, not from the front but a side entrance they had pushed through the wall. This gave me the opportunity look in and what a surprise it was as I looked into a familiar luminescent gape – my stars had been cuckolded by Gouldians!

A year waiting and I still hadn’t got it right or at least the birds hadn’t, or so I thought. I pulled all the chicks out and was rewarded by the sight of two young stars in addition to the Gouldian. As you can see from the photo the Gouldian was perhaps 2 days older than it’s nest mates and very greedy. I happened to have a nest of three Gouldian chicks which were a few days older than the star-fostered bird, as shown in the accompanying photo comparing two very differently reared Gouldian chicks. Hoping to increase the chance of fledging the stars but not wanting to lose the fostered Gouldian and I placed it with the other Gouldians. It sort of worked and I managed to fledge only a single star but the 4 gouldians were fine. After rearranging the babies, the star’s parents refused to re-enter the nest for 24h and the weaker of the chicks died. The parents even started looking at other nest sites until they eventually rediscoverd their baby.  One thing I did learn was never look in a star finch nest as they are just too ready to desert.

Cuckolding is a topic I haven’t read about before – usually aviculturists talk about interspecific pairing and hybrid chicks. Mixed collections are visually stunning but their management can be problematic. In my aviary I have another odd pair consisting of a male shaft-tail finch and a female zebra finch but they have only ever produced zebra babies so she really has cuckolded him. From an biological point of view the cuckoldry going on in aviaries does give some insight into the evolution of nest parasitism. There are many nest parasites from quite diverse bird groups (and as a father myself I can see the advantages – just kidding). The most famous of the parasites are the cuckoos (hence cuckoldry) but it is also common amongst the finches of Africa. Indigo birds and whydahs typically parasitise the nests of wax-bills and unlike cuckoos the young don’t deliberately kill their hosts young and mixed broods are common. Being able to discriminate between your own and other’s young has obvious advantages for the host and this is one of the reasons that the characteristic mouth-markings of chicks is thought to have evolved. The method isn’t fool-proof however and if I can tell the difference it amazes me that the birds can’t but it may not matter because imprinting on many fostered birds means that they have a reproductive preference for their host species. In the instance of my Gouldians and stars, I suspect interspecific progeny would be sterile but if such foster reared birds continued to prefer their own kind and also continued to parasitise the nests of other finches they should be able to increase their reproductive potential by continuing to lay without all the effort invested into rearing chicks.

Parasitism brings to the fore another topic; that of fostering – the deliberate introduction, by the keeper, of eggs or young to another birds nest.  This will be the topic of part two of this post.